A POSSIBLE DESCRIPTION OF A BALL LIGHTNING
(June 2024)
ABSTRACT
We looked for the simplest hypothesis, without assuming a central force field: known and similar atmospheric phenomena are gas discharges and auroral light. The colour of the aurora is caused by ionised oxygen and nitrogen atoms. Corona discharge is also a local ionisation of the air, while electric sparks and arcs - phenomena similar to ball lightning - require more current and more charge carriers than corona discharge. The electric arc is a discharge process described by streaming charges, at the end of which the ions recombine. The atmospheric electric potential can be tens of thousands of Volt/centimetre, which ionises oxygen, nitrogen.
A phenomenon described in the physics of lightning is that lightning from clouds (also known as "dry lightning") is associated with colourful ion channels that originate from the Earth, although they are difficult to detect, and collapse if they do not encounter a cloud lightning. The ion channels upwards the cloud can be the source of ionised oxygen and nitrogen atoms, an ion clouds of the ball lightning, provided that the atmospheric potential is sufficiently high and the ions are produced in sufficient numbers to stabilise the ion cloud.
The new hypothesis is that the formation and stability of the ball lightning is explained by the phenomena of arc-light (and coronal emission), and that electron avalanches cause ionisation in coronal emission. The process is self-excited and becomes independent of external stress when a negative resistive state is created, followed by thermal emission. Thermal emission is most intense in the centre of the spherical shape, which is the cause of the inflating spherical shape and the ignition voltage. The surface recombines the dissipating particles. At the negative-resistance state, the current, i.e. the number of ions, would increase at decreasing voltage, if recombination did not limit it. Towards the centre, air molecules flow into the centre, which - as long as there is sufficient temperature and energy - become ions.
INTRODUCTION
The research method was an internet search and analysis of literature sources. There are many explanations of spherical lightning covering almost every topic in physics, so the aim of the research was to find the simplest hypothesis. A hypothesis is simple if it is based on known phenomena: spherical lightning is made up of charged non-exotic particles, electrons, ions, although many hypotheses also assume rare particles. Ball lightning is an atmospheric phenomenon, so our hypothesis is that ions and electrons in the air form ball lightning. Looking at similar atmospheric phenomena, note that the aurora is a phenomenon with a similar colour to the ball lightning. Corona discharge is a similarly coloured, nearly spherical atmospheric ionisation phenomenon, but it is a phenomenon bound to the location of its electron source, and is further characterised by a glowing.
Literature review*: spherical lightning is not a rare phenomenon, many and unaccepted explanations have been published. On the physics of the atmosphere and lightning, see R.P. Feynman-R.B. Leighton-M. Sands, Modern Physics, vol. 5, (p. 120, Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1969. ETO 53 "19" (082)), where the authors summarize the physics of lightning in the chapter "Atmospheric Electricity". The atmospheric electric potential can be tens of thousands of volts per centimetre, which can ionise oxygen and nitrogen.
The research method was an internet search and analysis of literature sources. There are many explanations of spherical lightning covering almost every topic in physics, so the aim of the research was to find the simplest hypothesis. A hypothesis is simple if it is based on known phenomena: spherical lightning is made up of charged non-exotic particles, electrons, ions, although many hypotheses also assume rare particles. Ball lightning is an atmospheric phenomenon, so our hypothesis is that ions and electrons in the air form ball lightning. Looking at similar atmospheric phenomena, note that the aurora is a phenomenon with a similar colour to the ball lightning. Corona discharge is a similarly coloured, nearly spherical atmospheric ionisation phenomenon, but it is a phenomenon bound to the location of its electron source, and is further characterised by a glowing.
Literature review*: spherical lightning is not a rare phenomenon, many and unaccepted explanations have been published. On the physics of the atmosphere and lightning, see R.P. Feynman-R.B. Leighton-M. Sands, Modern Physics, vol. 5, (p. 120, Műszaki Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1969. ETO 53 "19" (082)), where the authors summarize the physics of lightning in the chapter "Atmospheric Electricity". The atmospheric electric potential can be tens of thousands of volts per centimetre, which can ionise oxygen and nitrogen.
The real difference in the literature hypotheses is the origin of the central force fields that hold the charged particles together. In the simplest hypothesis, we rejected the hypothesis of central cohesive forces. Our hypothesis is that recombination of ions does not balance with the large amounts of ions generated by the electron avalanches moving into the ionic cluster (ionic conduction, plasma also forms in a negative resistivity phase of the discharge), only the law of conservation of energy limits the size and duration of the phenomenon.
Sources of ions: lightning is the ion channel of a cloud (there are also "dry lightning") and lightning also has an ion channel from the Earth or from airplanes, which is difficult to detect: a zigzag flow of positive-signature electricity is initiated in small steps from the "surface of the ground, especially from the prominent, pointed parts, towards the cloud, but never reaches the cloud. The flow from the ground is characterised by a purple to pinkish light (only visible in high-speed camera images). The channel from the cloud is usually white" (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning). The ion channel from the Earth, which is difficult to detect, collapses if it does not meet the ion channel from above, the lightning.
Sources of ions: lightning is the ion channel of a cloud (there are also "dry lightning") and lightning also has an ion channel from the Earth or from airplanes, which is difficult to detect: a zigzag flow of positive-signature electricity is initiated in small steps from the "surface of the ground, especially from the prominent, pointed parts, towards the cloud, but never reaches the cloud. The flow from the ground is characterised by a purple to pinkish light (only visible in high-speed camera images). The channel from the cloud is usually white" (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning). The ion channel from the Earth, which is difficult to detect, collapses if it does not meet the ion channel from above, the lightning.
It is in keeping with the principle of simplicity to relate known phenomena such as the aurora, coronal emission, arc emission, gas emission, ion channels emitted from the Earth's surface or from airplanes. The known phenomena of positive coronal and arc discharges are used to explain the formation of the ball lightning. Electron avalanches into the ion cloud cause the spherical shape. The energy of the electron avalanches is provided by the atmospheric electric potential.
Description of the ball lightning: its source is a hard-to-see lower ion channel from the ground. These air ions are created by atmospheric stress and are not a stable phenomenon, they are characterised by collisional ionisation. In the case of a gas discharge, the phenomenon is called corona discharge (St. Elmo's fire of corona discharge, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_fire, cold plasma), characterized by glowing embers and negative resistance. At sufficiently high atmospheric pressure, the lower ion channel does not disappear but is transformed into an arc-jet, characterized by thermal electron emission and again negative resistance (see Fig. The arc-light state is already a stable phenomenon for a few 10 seconds, according to the laws of conservation. Ion channels of lightning from the ground or from aircraft, or from other high-capacity locations, are thought to be suitable sources of ball lightning.
ABOUT THE AURORA BOREALIS
The origin of charged particles: with the solar wind, high-energy electrons and protons approach the Earth, the Earth's magnetic field directs these charged particles towards the poles, changing the direction of the particles. As the charged particles follow the magnetic lines of force into the upper atmosphere, they collide with gas atoms (mainly oxygen and nitrogen), the collisions excite the gas atoms (cold plasma), causing the gas atoms to emit light. The colour of the auroral light depends on the type of gas and the altitude at which the collisions occur, e.g. the colour of oxygen ions is different at high altitude (green) and at low altitude (yellowish, less often red).
The origin of charged particles: with the solar wind, high-energy electrons and protons approach the Earth, the Earth's magnetic field directs these charged particles towards the poles, changing the direction of the particles. As the charged particles follow the magnetic lines of force into the upper atmosphere, they collide with gas atoms (mainly oxygen and nitrogen), the collisions excite the gas atoms (cold plasma), causing the gas atoms to emit light. The colour of the auroral light depends on the type of gas and the altitude at which the collisions occur, e.g. the colour of oxygen ions is different at high altitude (green) and at low altitude (yellowish, less often red).
If we match colours to temperatures and wavelengths between 1800K and 5600K degrees, then:
Colour temperatures: (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%ADnh%C5%91m%C3%A9rs%C3%A9klet)
THE CROWN DISCHARGES, ARCS
A well-known phenomenon, corona discharge, is used to model the physics of spherical lightning, which is caused by an elusive ion channel from the Earth (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge). Corona discharge is a local ionisation of air, and corona discharge occurs at locations where the strength of the electric field (potential gradient) around the conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of the air, the latter being strongly dependent on humidity. Often seen as a bluish glow in the air (St Elmo's fire).
A well-known phenomenon, corona discharge, is used to model the physics of spherical lightning, which is caused by an elusive ion channel from the Earth (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge). Corona discharge is a local ionisation of air, and corona discharge occurs at locations where the strength of the electric field (potential gradient) around the conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of the air, the latter being strongly dependent on humidity. Often seen as a bluish glow in the air (St Elmo's fire).
There are two types, positive and negative coronae. The physical functioning of the two types of corona discharge is fundamentally different. The reason is that the mass of the electrons and the positively charged ions are substantially different. When electrons cause collisional ionisation, electron avalanches are produced for a large enough voltage difference. In a positive corona, all electrons move inwards into the ion cloud and ions are repelled outwards, in a negative corona the opposite is true.
The light in the corona is caused by electrons recombining with positive ions to form neutral atoms, and when the electron returns to its original energy level, it emits photons. The photons also cause further atoms to ionise, maintaining the ionisation. At negative coronas, "clusters" appear; observations show that spherical lightning does not "cluster".
The positive crown appears as a uniform plasma. It glows blue-white, although the majority of the photons are in the ultraviolet range. The plasma is balanced by secondary avalanche electrons. High-energy electrons from the ionisation of a neutral gas molecule at a surface of any shape will flow into the plasma and form additional avalanches within the plasma. The ionization caused by the electron avalanches inward from the surface replaces the ions that move away, possibly becoming neutral. (There is no cohesive central force field.) The difference between positive and negative coronae in terms of the generation of secondary electron avalanches is that in the positive corona, the avalanches originate from the gas surrounding the plasma surface, the new secondary electrons move inward.
Due to atmospheric tension, the positive ions are enriched on the surface, and the many and fast electrons ionise the nitrogen and oxygen atoms. The space charge distribution is not uniform in the radial direction, positive ions are enriched at the surface, which increases the field strength at the surface, therefore electrons from the outside can cause ionisation at the surface, which increases the radial current from the surface. The process is self-excited and becomes independent of external stress (negative resistance state), which is a condition for the stability of the plasma.
At the ignition voltage of air, the electrons are already sufficiently energetic to be able to excite the gas atoms, the glowing and, after the corona discharge, the arc flash, when thermal electrons are also produced from oxygen, nitrogen, the plasma.
The negative corona is not uniform plasma. Often clusters appear at the sharp edges of the corona, the number of clusters varying with field strength. The shape of negative coronae originates from the source of secondary avalanche electrons. The electrons can escape from the ionized region, and so the plasma continues beyond the ionized region, clustering. The total number of electrons and electron density is much higher than in the corresponding positive corona. The electrons have lower energy because they are in a lower potential gradient range. Therefore, reactions requiring higher electron energy proceed at lower rates. The structure of negative coronae is more complex than that of positive coronae. As with positive coronae, corona formation starts with an external ionisation event generating a primary electron, followed by an electron avalanche.
The difference between positive and negative corona events in terms of the generation of secondary electron avalanches is that in positive coronae they are generated by the gas surrounding the plasma field, with new secondary electrons moving inwards, whereas in negative coronae new secondary electrons move outwards.
Voltage-current characteristics of electrical discharge (in neon at 1 torr, with two planar electrodes separated by 50 cm).
A: random pulses by cosmic radiation
B: saturation current
C: avalanche Townsend discharge
D: self-sustained Townsend discharge
E: unstable region: corona discharge (when the voltage decreases, the current increases!)
F: sub-normal glow discharge
G: normal glow discharge
H: abnormal glow discharge
I: unstable region: glow-arc transition
J: electric arc (when the voltage decreases, the current increases!)
K: electric arc
B: saturation current
C: avalanche Townsend discharge
D: self-sustained Townsend discharge
E: unstable region: corona discharge (when the voltage decreases, the current increases!)
F: sub-normal glow discharge
G: normal glow discharge
H: abnormal glow discharge
I: unstable region: glow-arc transition
J: electric arc (when the voltage decreases, the current increases!)
K: electric arc
The A-D region is called a dark discharge; there is some ionization, but the current is below 10 microamperes and there is no significant amount of radiation produced.
The F-H region is a region of glow discharge; the plasma emits a faint glow that occupies almost all the volume of the tube; most of the light is emitted by excited neutral atoms.
The I-K region is a region of arc discharge; the plasma is concentrated in a narrow channel along the center of the tube;
a great amount of radiation is produced. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_discharge_in_gases)
Negative (differential or dynamic) resistance is a phenomenon in plasmas, semiconductors, does not exist at U ≈ 0, and its electrical model is current generator.
Voltage-current relation of electric discharge: self-sustained discharge is characterized by electron avalanches. At lower voltages, there is a glow discharge without light emission (transition phase, dark discharge), followed by an incandescent glow discharge with collisional electron avalanches (glow discharge and corona discharge, light emitted by excited neutral atoms). The secondary pre-discharge is associated with a glow discharge, decreasing voltage with increasing current, negative resistance with collisional electron conduction, no ball lightning is generated here.
Voltage-current relation of electric discharge: self-sustained discharge is characterized by electron avalanches. At lower voltages, there is a glow discharge without light emission (transition phase, dark discharge), followed by an incandescent glow discharge with collisional electron avalanches (glow discharge and corona discharge, light emitted by excited neutral atoms). The secondary pre-discharge is associated with a glow discharge, decreasing voltage with increasing current, negative resistance with collisional electron conduction, no ball lightning is generated here.
Then all charge carriers ionise, discharge turns into self-sustained discharge. Without external influence - the connection to the ground is broken - the flow is maintained, the energy is sufficient for the ions to thermally emit electrons from the gas molecules for a certain time: this is the arc discharge phase, the plasma state, see video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1bBNeyrMOJE.
Assumed radial distributions: sphere size, volume, pressure are nearly constant, number of ions slowly decreases over time due to recombination. Temperature decreases both radially and over time due to heat loss. The surface may be characterised by electron luminosity (glow), due to the lower temperature and observations. Without an external energy source, it cools by consuming its own energy, has strong electromagnetic (light, heat) loss, and then collapses under the ignition voltage.
Above the ignition voltage, thermal ionisation inside the arc flash is typical. Recombination at the surface is typical, cooling, temperature distribution results in symmetrical spherical shapes. The radial density distribution of ions up to and near the half-arc can be maximum depending on the distance to which the as yet unionized oxygen and nitrogen molecules penetrate from the outside, from the surface. Within the spherical filament, the free path lengths of electrons and positive ions are dominant, with electron path lengths of about 5.5 times. The collisions reduce the energy of the electrons and ions, and the energy loss from the collisions slows down the motion of the particles.
Above the ignition voltage, thermal ionisation inside the arc flash is typical. Recombination at the surface is typical, cooling, temperature distribution results in symmetrical spherical shapes. The radial density distribution of ions up to and near the half-arc can be maximum depending on the distance to which the as yet unionized oxygen and nitrogen molecules penetrate from the outside, from the surface. Within the spherical filament, the free path lengths of electrons and positive ions are dominant, with electron path lengths of about 5.5 times. The collisions reduce the energy of the electrons and ions, and the energy loss from the collisions slows down the motion of the particles.
*Literature review: the ball lightning is not a rare phenomenon, many -though sometimes uncertain- observations have been published:
- History of observations Keul, A. G.: A brief history of ball lightning observations by scientists and trained professionals, Hist. Geo Space. Sci., 12, 43-56, https://doi.org/10.5194/hgss-12-43-2021, 2021.
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_lightning,
- https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6mbvill%C3%A1m,
- https://anyanyelvcsavar.blog.hu/2018/07/20/a_villamok_nepi_osztalyozasa_kulonos_tekintettel_
- https://anyanyelvcsavar.blog.hu/2018/07/20/a_villamok_nepi_osztalyozasa_kulonos_tekintettel_
a_gombvillamra,
- https://www.britannica.com/story/does-ball-lightning-exist.
- https://www.britannica.com/story/does-ball-lightning-exist.
- Corona discharge (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge)
- Nicola Tesla may have produced ball lightning (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs_Notes,_1899%E2%80%931900) using high-voltage and high-frequency devices.
- At the Max Planc Institute (https://phys.org/news/2006-06-physicists-ball-lightning-lab.html), they produced plasma with a high current arc, but for a very short time compared to the lifetime of ball lightning.
- Researchers in Brazil and New Zealand have experimented with silicon evaporation (https://index.hu/tudomany/villam070112/, http://aparadox.hupont.hu/19/05-brazil-gombvillam). Microwave production experiments have also been carried out (https://www.nature.com/articles/srep28263).
- Nicola Tesla may have produced ball lightning (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs_Notes,_1899%E2%80%931900) using high-voltage and high-frequency devices.
- At the Max Planc Institute (https://phys.org/news/2006-06-physicists-ball-lightning-lab.html), they produced plasma with a high current arc, but for a very short time compared to the lifetime of ball lightning.
- Researchers in Brazil and New Zealand have experimented with silicon evaporation (https://index.hu/tudomany/villam070112/, http://aparadox.hupont.hu/19/05-brazil-gombvillam). Microwave production experiments have also been carried out (https://www.nature.com/articles/srep28263).
- Kapitza (Kapitza, P. L., Doklady, U.S.S.R. (1955) and https://www.nature.com/articles/185449a0) describes spherical lightning as electromagnetic standing waves, the resonance of a conducting ionized plasma sphere, which occurs when the wavelength of the radiation is about four times the diameter of the fireball. The ionic cohesive field: according to Kapitza (Kapitza, P. L., Doklady, U.S.S.R. (1955) and Silberg, P.A. On the formation of ball lightning. Il Nuovo Cimento C4, 221-235 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02507400) the origin of the central cohesive field is an electromagnetic standing wave which on average produces a virtual potential minimum.
- Tibor Neugebauer (Fizikai Szemle, The theory of the fireball / NeugebauerTibor = Vol. 25, 1975, p. 49) describes a quantum theoretical idea based on the exchange interaction, which has not been generally accepted and is difficult to access even in Hungarian.
- There are also a number of ideas that cannot and should not be taken seriously.
- (https://web.archive.org/web/20050224120205/http://www.sulinet.hu/termeszetvilaga/archiv/2000/0015/21.html)
**Observed characteristics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_lightning):
**Observed characteristics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_lightning):
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1bBNeyrMOJE,,
- Floating in an erratic orbit, ("mats"), spinning, rolls,
- destroys, though not always,
- often occurs in thunderstorms, but not exclusively and not necessarily thunderstorm related, although more common in thunderstorms,
- can move upwind, speeds of 1-2 m/sec,
- burning holes in partitions, sometimes passing through without a trace.
- Floating in an erratic orbit, ("mats"), spinning, rolls,
- destroys, though not always,
- often occurs in thunderstorms, but not exclusively and not necessarily thunderstorm related, although more common in thunderstorms,
- can move upwind, speeds of 1-2 m/sec,
- burning holes in partitions, sometimes passing through without a trace.
- spherical lightning bolts are described as transparent, opalescent with opaque edges, multicoloured, uniformly luminous, radiating flames, filaments or sparks, varying in shape from spheres, ovals, teardrops and rarely discs,
- disappear suddenly, dissipate gradually, or become engulfed in an object, "popping", exploding loudly, even forcefully, causing serious damage. Reports also vary on their alleged danger to humans, from lethal to harmless. Odours resembling ozone, burning sulphur or nitrogen oxides are often reported.
- They range from 1 to 100 cm in diameter, most often around 10 cm,
- A wide range of colours have been observed, the most common being red, orange and yellow, rarely bluish, usually opalescent.
- Their lifetime lasts from one second to more than a minute, and the brightness remains relatively constant during this time,
- observers rarely report any sensation of heat, but it will burn any object it comes into contact with. In some cases, the disappearance of the sphere has been accompanied by a strong release of heat.
- Some spheres are attracted to metal objects and move along conductors such as wires or metal fences.
- They range from 1 to 100 cm in diameter, most often around 10 cm,
- A wide range of colours have been observed, the most common being red, orange and yellow, rarely bluish, usually opalescent.
- Their lifetime lasts from one second to more than a minute, and the brightness remains relatively constant during this time,
- observers rarely report any sensation of heat, but it will burn any object it comes into contact with. In some cases, the disappearance of the sphere has been accompanied by a strong release of heat.
- Some spheres are attracted to metal objects and move along conductors such as wires or metal fences.
- Some have appeared inside buildings without warning, passing through locked doors and windows, and have also appeared inside metal aircraft, entering and leaving without causing damage.
- Possible spectra: silicon, calcium, iron, nitrogen, oxygen emission lines were observed in a Chinese spectral measurement from a long distance, probably partly pollution.