HISTORY OF SHIPS: THE FRAME OF SHIPS
(October 2025)
ABSTRACT
We are looking for an answer to the question of what innovations in the history of shipbuilding made it possible for Christopher Columbus to reach America and return to Europe, to Lisbon. There are three most important innovations of building ships: first the frame structures, and the use of the lateen sail and the rudder. The Portuguese were the first to build first the frame on keeled ships, the caravels around the 1440's, and later the larger carracks. The discovery of the coasts of Africa was the direct reason for the construction of keeled ships, and the construction of ships of first the frame with strengthening of the planking made further geographical discoveries possible. Initially, the Portuguese explored the African coast, until the Gold Coast and the Azores. There is no direct evidence, but it is very likely that Henry the Navigator had the first who Built kelled ships, the caravels in Europe in the 1400s in Lagos, Portugal. Several voyages of discovery were commissioned by Henry the Navigator to Africa, Azores were discovered. The Portuguese version of the caravel was developed from local fishing boats, from barinels. Arab influences - the spread of the triangular lateen sail and the rudder attached to the stern - determined the good navigational capabilities and maneuverability of the ocean-going caravels. Ships built for the ocean were built with high side planks, to withstand larger waves and to store supplies for many days or weeks. However, keeled ships were lighter, about half as heavy as the ships built using the first shipbuilding method of joining the planks. The carvel planks were fastened together with pins and thin ropes, "sewing", by carving grooves into the planks. The carvel planks did not leak as much as the clinker-planked Viking ships. In the Baltics, ships with "sewn" pin-and-pin carvel planks were built even in the 19th century, because it was a cheap, waterproof method of shipbuilding. The planks were not pierced for the "sewing", but fibrous plant debris, cord, or possibly twigs were pressed between the planks.
We are looking for an answer to the question of what innovations in the history of shipbuilding made it possible for Christopher Columbus to reach America and return to Europe, to Lisbon. There are three most important innovations of building ships: first the frame structures, and the use of the lateen sail and the rudder. The Portuguese were the first to build first the frame on keeled ships, the caravels around the 1440's, and later the larger carracks. The discovery of the coasts of Africa was the direct reason for the construction of keeled ships, and the construction of ships of first the frame with strengthening of the planking made further geographical discoveries possible. Initially, the Portuguese explored the African coast, until the Gold Coast and the Azores. There is no direct evidence, but it is very likely that Henry the Navigator had the first who Built kelled ships, the caravels in Europe in the 1400s in Lagos, Portugal. Several voyages of discovery were commissioned by Henry the Navigator to Africa, Azores were discovered. The Portuguese version of the caravel was developed from local fishing boats, from barinels. Arab influences - the spread of the triangular lateen sail and the rudder attached to the stern - determined the good navigational capabilities and maneuverability of the ocean-going caravels. Ships built for the ocean were built with high side planks, to withstand larger waves and to store supplies for many days or weeks. However, keeled ships were lighter, about half as heavy as the ships built using the first shipbuilding method of joining the planks. The carvel planks were fastened together with pins and thin ropes, "sewing", by carving grooves into the planks. The carvel planks did not leak as much as the clinker-planked Viking ships. In the Baltics, ships with "sewn" pin-and-pin carvel planks were built even in the 19th century, because it was a cheap, waterproof method of shipbuilding. The planks were not pierced for the "sewing", but fibrous plant debris, cord, or possibly twigs were pressed between the planks.
INTRODUCTION
Ships built first the frame on keel are those wooden ships in which the crossbeams and ribs are first attached to a bottom beam, the keel, and only then is covered with planks. Ships were previously built with a bottom beam*, which was mounted under the already reinforced planks, and its function was to protect the bottom of the ship (false keel*) when towing or running ashore, and also to keep the ship directional (keel*). In the first half of the 15th century, Portuguese caravels, and then carracks, which fit into our childhood fairy tales, were the first keeled ships.
Ships built first the frame on keel are those wooden ships in which the crossbeams and ribs are first attached to a bottom beam, the keel, and only then is covered with planks. Ships were previously built with a bottom beam*, which was mounted under the already reinforced planks, and its function was to protect the bottom of the ship (false keel*) when towing or running ashore, and also to keep the ship directional (keel*). In the first half of the 15th century, Portuguese caravels, and then carracks, which fit into our childhood fairy tales, were the first keeled ships.
Columbus' ships, two caravels and a carrack in the middle (the latter also known as a nao
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolumbusz_Krist%C3%B3f)
Christopher Columbus's ship Santa Maria, carrack. The engraving was published in 1493, after Columbus' first voyage
(https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolumbusz_Krist%C3%B3f)
Engraving of Lisbon harbour
Caravels were first mentioned in 1255, still as fishing boats without keels. In ships built without keels, the hull was first constructed from planks, and then the crossbeams were reinforced, with the bottom beam* placed under the shell structure. Until the 1400s, only keel-less ships were built in the Mediterranean. (For example, Viking ships were bottom-planked and built on bottom planks*, with clinker planks and overlapping planks. There are older versions of Viking carvel planking below the waterline, because clinker planks are more difficult to insulate against leaks.) Although significantly less wood was needed to build keel ships, the new construction method did not catch on easily.
From the 12th century onwards, Latin sail ships began to be built in the Mediterranean. Before that, square-rigged ships with keels were built. The origin of the keel: the Phoenician Ugarites (Syria) introduced the keel* to Egypt in the 1600s BC in their capital city of Avaris in the Nile Delta. The keel* is a bottom beam that ensured the direction of sailing ships in crosswinds and served to protect the bottom of the hull when running aground. It consisted of several pieces. Later, the keel was carved from a single beam whenever possible.
From the 12th century onwards, Latin sail ships began to be built in the Mediterranean. Before that, square-rigged ships with keels were built. The origin of the keel: the Phoenician Ugarites (Syria) introduced the keel* to Egypt in the 1600s BC in their capital city of Avaris in the Nile Delta. The keel* is a bottom beam that ensured the direction of sailing ships in crosswinds and served to protect the bottom of the hull when running aground. It consisted of several pieces. Later, the keel was carved from a single beam whenever possible.
Straight keel, ribs built on the keel-beam
In the following illustration, S is the inner bottom beam, K is the keel, which in English terminology can also mean spine, below it is the rubbing strake, F are crossbeams, ribs, G are bottom planks:
Keel and inner bottom beam marked with the letters K and S, the ship slid on the unmarked rubbing beam under the keel when it ran aground on the shore.
Keel, cross-beam, longitudinal side-beam Greek ship structure
From the 12th century onwards, shipbuilding shifted to ruddered, lateen-rigged ships:
10th century, 25 m long, 7 m wide, two-decked large Latin sail cargo ship with a rudder
(GULAS, Stefan - LESCINSKY, Dusan: The History of Sailing Ships, Madách Publishing House, Bratislava 1984.)
(GULAS, Stefan - LESCINSKY, Dusan: The History of Sailing Ships, Madách Publishing House, Bratislava 1984.)
Large lateen transport ship: In the first centuries of the Middle Ages, the large lateen transport ship was the second most common ship in the Mediterranean Sea, after the galley-type ships, the liburnians. It replaced the Roman merchant ships. It was about 25 meters long and 7 meters wide, its height from the bottom to the deck was around 7 m. This wide "floating warehouse" was made with two masts, the first, which was placed in the bow of the ship, reached a height of 23 meters. Like the Roman merchant ship, the first mast of the large lateen ship was moderately inclined towards the bow. The second mast was slightly lower, set approximately in the middle of the ship. A superstructure was placed on small poles at the stern, similar to that later carried by the Baltic cog. Both masts were equipped with lateen sails, that is, triangular sails attached to long, obliquely suspended masts. Since the masts were long, they were assembled in two parts. The lateen sail may have been adopted by the Europeans from the Arabs, and within a short time the galleys were also equipped with it. The name of the ship refers not only to its sail, but also to the spaciousness of the ship. It was built with two decks, and goods were delivered to the lower compartment through a large loading hatch on the upper deck and a small loading hatch on the side of the ship. The loading hatch was kept closed during sailing. This ship also used lever rudders on both sides of the stern.
The lateen sail originated in the Roman Mediterranean, with depictions appearing in the 2nd century AD and becoming widespread by the 5th century. The triangular lateen sail allowed ships to sail somewhat upwind. The Arabs also used the lateen sail, and by the 13th century it had been integrated into the Indian Ocean trade. The lateen sail was a key innovation, revolutionizing sailing and contributing to the development of later ocean-going ships. Turning was somewhat cumbersome, requiring the lower mast to be moved to the other side of the mast. It improved the efficiency of sailing in the monsoon-hit Indian Ocean, facilitating trade and economic growth in the region. On larger ships, they were used together with square sails, these were full-sailed ships: a square sail, one or two were used at the front, and a lateen lateen sail at the back. The lateen sail may have been of Arabic origin or came through Arab mediation. In the case of caravels, the Arab influence is probably explained by the proximity of the Caliphate of Córdoba to Portugal. The use of a rope ladder leading to the mast, then the halyard (a net-like rope ladder), and later the compass also spread slowly. The rudder was also adopted from the Portuguese caravels: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_ships). On his first voyage, Columbus crossed the Atlantic with two 60-ton caravels and an 80-ton nao.
*
The word keel generally refers to the directional bottom beam, the ship's capital, on which the bulwarks, as well as the bow and stern, are built. Many meanings are known:
- the keel is built under the ship to maintain direction, if it has an effective vertical dimension, it is often used in this sense, the original meaning of the word is: direction holder
- a false keel is a bottom beam, it protects the bottom of the ship,
- ballast keel, i.e. capital weight,
- keelson, i.e. inner bottom beam, to distribute the weight of the masts and deck, (and in the examined era the bottom beams were not yet extended, the meaning of the whip beam is inRoman warships.
The word keel generally refers to the directional bottom beam, the ship's capital, on which the bulwarks, as well as the bow and stern, are built. Many meanings are known:
- the keel is built under the ship to maintain direction, if it has an effective vertical dimension, it is often used in this sense, the original meaning of the word is: direction holder
- a false keel is a bottom beam, it protects the bottom of the ship,
- ballast keel, i.e. capital weight,
- keelson, i.e. inner bottom beam, to distribute the weight of the masts and deck, (and in the examined era the bottom beams were not yet extended, the meaning of the whip beam is inRoman warships.
(Note: AI, Copilot's English answer is wrong about the construction date of the first keeled ship: the Uluburun (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck) wreck, which is a Phoenician, and the richest ancient wreck, early BC, 1320 +/- 15 years, probably Ugaritic. Hamis keeles merchant ship, like other Phoenician ships.)
HISTORY OF THE RUDDER
Origin of the rudder, the straight stern: the Hariri Codex ship depiction of an Arab ship with a rudder around 1100:
Origin of the rudder, the straight stern: the Hariri Codex ship depiction of an Arab ship with a rudder around 1100:
Arab sea rudder boat, c. 1100, Persian Gulf, sailors measuring water depth below, research anchor boat, straight oars
(https://www.facsimilefinder.com/facsimiles/maqamat-al-hariri-facsimile)
(https://www.facsimilefinder.com/facsimiles/maqamat-al-hariri-facsimile)
From the 13th century onwards, the use of rudders replaced oars in the Mediterranean, although the latter were still in use in Venice in the 15th and 16th centuries. The rudder, which originated in China and was brought to the Mediterranean via Arabia, the keel (which originated in Portugal, possibly via Arabia), the lateen sail (which originated in Roman times, possibly via Arabia), and the use of cannons (of Chinese origin, together with gunpowder, around 1100) spread over the centuries. The rudder was mounted on the sternpost, the stern, a straight sternpost. Straight sternposts had been used in the Aegean Sea for more than 3,000 years at that time, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Obsidian-sources-Milos-Antiparos-Yali-and-their-distribution-in-the-Aegean-area_fig1_243960112, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milos, e.g. to the island of Milos for obsidian, and earlier with reed boats.
It is possible that the rudder was also invented in the north: it first appeared on a carved relief on the baptismal font of Winchester Cathedral around 1180, then on the 13th-century seals of Dam and Ipswich and on a depiction carved into the wall of the Fide Church on Gotland (an island near Stockholm) (https://nautarch.tamu.edu/pdf-files/Mott-MA1991.pdf). It can also be seen on a carving on a coat of arms in southern England:
Oak cog rudder from near Plymouth (South West England) with a straight sternpost, dating from the 1400s
(https://nautarch.tamu.edu/pdf-files/Mott-MA1991.pdf)
Rudder mounted on a sternpost from the 1500s. One of the first rudders was built on Baltic cogs around 1300.
The first appearance of the rudder in Europe is unclear. Some experts believe it arrived in Europe from China via Arabia, while others believe it appeared in the North Sea and Baltic Sea on cog-type ships used for Hanseatic trade (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder). Baltic cog ships were also originally ships without keels. The connections between the vertically placed support beams holding up the ship's deck required a solid foundation, so an internal longitudinal beam (keelson*) was built into the bottom of the ship.
In the Baltic Sea, ships used in Hanseatic trade, such as cogs and hulks, commonly used rudders, which were quickly adopted by caravel builders due to their ease of steering.
Kogges: According to some shipbuilding experts, the rudder originated from the Baltic cog type of ship, which also had a lateen sail version (kogge, cog, which is a clinker-built, nailed plank transport ship reinforced with bulwarks, https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogge, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cog_ (ship). The cog appeared in the 10th century (first mentioned in 948 in Muiden, near Amsterdam) and was used in large numbers in the 12th century in the then emerging Hanseatic trade and in the Crusades. The cog was a Hanseatic ship with square sails, straight masts, no keel, but a rudder.
Cogs are characterized by bow and stern superstructures, bastions, square sails, and rudders.
Most Baltic hulks are large displacement, three-masted cargo ships with square sails on the foremast and mainmast and lateen sails on the mizzenmast. The size of the fore and aft superstructures was the same, and they were rectangular in shape. (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulk_(haj%C3%B3))
Hulk is a sailing ship Of shallow-draft cargo sailing ship (Wikipedia)
The cross-section of the river hull, the ribs did not span the entire width until the 1400s: the structure is not a keel, internal beam, keelsonal* built ship (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulk_(haj%C3%B3)
PORTUGUESE CARAVELS WERE THE FIRST KEELBOATS
The direct predecessors of keelboats, called barinels, were built in Portugal in the 14th century. These were not yet keel-built ships, but were used as military and exploration vessels, with a crew of 30 rowers. The barinel was built to be stronger than other ships in the 1440s, with a lateen sail. (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barinel). Based on the images, the barinel differed little from the caravels:
The direct predecessors of keelboats, called barinels, were built in Portugal in the 14th century. These were not yet keel-built ships, but were used as military and exploration vessels, with a crew of 30 rowers. The barinel was built to be stronger than other ships in the 1440s, with a lateen sail. (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barinel). Based on the images, the barinel differed little from the caravels:
Barinel, the predecessor of caravels (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barinel)
Barinel (1400-1440), the predecessor of caravels (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barinel)
The story of the rounding of the African reef Cape Bojador serves as a background to the story of the ship's backbone: due to strong ocean winds, the rounding of Cape Bajador (West Africa, https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabo_Bojador) located south of the Canary Islands caused a difficult problem for the sailors of the explorer Henry the Navigator: "Twenty-five kilometers from its shores, the depth in the open sea is only two meters, probably due to siltation caused by thousands of years of sandstorms blown by the Sahara Desert. In May 1434, a 30-ton, single-masted barinel with a round - square - sail, partially covered and propelled by oars was equipped. The crew consisted of only fifteen men. When they reached Cape Fear, they decided to maneuver westward away from the African coast. After a full day of sailing, they moved away from the coast, in a calm and He reached a bay with light winds, then headed southeast, and soon realized that he had left Cape Bojador behind.
The passage of Cape Bojador was one of the most important milestones in navigation. It overturned the old myths of impossibility of circumnavigation and opened the way for great discoveries. By passing Cape Bojador, Portuguese sailors entered previously unknown seas, where they had to face many other dangers." (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabo_Bojador).
The passage of Cape Bojador was one of the most important milestones in navigation. It overturned the old myths of impossibility of circumnavigation and opened the way for great discoveries. By passing Cape Bojador, Portuguese sailors entered previously unknown seas, where they had to face many other dangers." (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabo_Bojador).
"Henry the Navigator (1394 - Sagres, 1460) organized sea voyages along the western coast of Africa. Earlier, in 1419 - expanding westward - his captains had already discovered Madeira, then in 1447 the Azores. In 1434 - heading south - the Portuguese reached Cape Bojador, then sailing along the coast of Senegal to the westernmost tip of Africa, Cape Verde. In 1442 they brought black slaves to Lisbon. In 1456 they discovered the Cape Verde Islands, then founded colonies on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Henry the Navigator died in 1460, but this did not stop the Portuguese. They successively occupied the Sugar Coast, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast and Slave Coast. Columbus met his wife in Lisbon around this time. (A famous proverbial wife, we know nothing about her.) On his first voyage in 1476, he sailed from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. His ship was attacked by pirates. He landed in Portugal, arrived in Lisbon in late August or early September of that year, and lived there for the next 10 years. Between 1477 and 1485 (as a merchant), he traveled the known part of the Atlantic Ocean from Iceland through the Portuguese and Spanish islands to the newly established Portuguese gold-producing colony at the mouth of the Volta River (Africa). In the meantime, he matured his great plan to reach India from the west by crossing the Atlantic Ocean, reaching China, from there to present-day Japan, and finally to India. (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolumbusz_Krist%C3%B3f).
From the dates of the Portuguese's first ocean voyages of discovery and the data from the life of Christopher Columbus, it follows that in the period between 1435 and 1476, there was a leap in Portuguese navigation. They were already planning and implementing long-distance voyages, for which they needed suitable ocean-going ships. These were the first keel-built ships, the caravels, with lateen sails and rudders. The first was probably built before 1450.
The "Latin-caravell", a caravel with lateen sails and a rudder
The caravel was developed in Portugal, originating from Portuguese fishing boats (the barcha, a fishing boat, and the barinel (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barinel)). Its first written mention dates back to 1255. The origin of its name: it comes from the Portuguese word "carvalho", meaning oak, and the caravel was built from oak - not cedar. It was a successful type of ship, its larger, similarly keeled version, the nao or carrack, was built for hundreds of years from the 1400s, the caravel and the carrack were the ship types of the great geographical discoveries.
Early caravels were single-masted, square-rigged or lateen-rigged ships with a 4:1 length ratio, a caravel, a rudder and a raised stern, and a single deck. The early type (13th–15th centuries) was small, strong and fast, with a displacement of about 20 gross tons. The multi-masted ones usually had lateen sails on two or three masts, or mixed (two square-rigged and one lateen on large ships). Their crew consisted of about 20 men, which corresponded to their original function: in the 13th century, the first caravels were fishing boats used along the coast. The later caravel was 20–25 m long, 6–7 m wide, and displaced 200–400 gross tons. This was the "cross-sailed caravel" which also had a small cross-sail (artemon sail) on the foremast, and a topsail above the mast basket, or topsail. The lateen sail remained on the aftermast. With the displacement of water, the number of masts increased further: eventually, four-masted caravels were also built. The seaworthiness of the cross-sailed caravel was outstanding for its time. It was the first type of large ship that could sail sharply into the wind. Portuguese sailors sailed along the coast of West Africa to the Gold Coast and even slightly beyond on such so-called lateen caravels. The simple ship had many advantageous features; the most important of which were that it was maneuverable, built with a rudder, could sail well against the wind, and had high sides against large ocean waves.
Early caravels were single-masted, square-rigged or lateen-rigged ships with a 4:1 length ratio, a caravel, a rudder and a raised stern, and a single deck. The early type (13th–15th centuries) was small, strong and fast, with a displacement of about 20 gross tons. The multi-masted ones usually had lateen sails on two or three masts, or mixed (two square-rigged and one lateen on large ships). Their crew consisted of about 20 men, which corresponded to their original function: in the 13th century, the first caravels were fishing boats used along the coast. The later caravel was 20–25 m long, 6–7 m wide, and displaced 200–400 gross tons. This was the "cross-sailed caravel" which also had a small cross-sail (artemon sail) on the foremast, and a topsail above the mast basket, or topsail. The lateen sail remained on the aftermast. With the displacement of water, the number of masts increased further: eventually, four-masted caravels were also built. The seaworthiness of the cross-sailed caravel was outstanding for its time. It was the first type of large ship that could sail sharply into the wind. Portuguese sailors sailed along the coast of West Africa to the Gold Coast and even slightly beyond on such so-called lateen caravels. The simple ship had many advantageous features; the most important of which were that it was maneuverable, built with a rudder, could sail well against the wind, and had high sides against large ocean waves.
Caravel Model
Henry the Navigator: The spread of caravels can be attributed to Henry the Navigator, a navigator from the royal family. "He did a lot for the development of shipping; he founded a shipyard in Sagres, located at Cape Vincent, at the southernmost point of Portugal (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagres), and also built an observatory, a geographical institute, and a map library, and gathered cartographers in Sagres, among them a famous cartographer, Jehuda Cresquest. According to the descriptions, he was driven not by an insatiable thirst for knowledge, but by a desire for profit. Henry the Navigator's shipbuilders designed the new keel-rudder caravels. These three-masted, triangular-sailed, slender, maneuverable, rounded-bottomed, keel, i.e. directional sailing ships, suitable for long sea voyages, became the main means of sea-oceanic exploration. The Portuguese port of Lagos provided a good opportunity for the development of shipping and shipbuilding. The Portuguese sailors were the first to fix the compass so that it would always be horizontal and show the direction accurately. The type of ship developed in the 1400s was light and fast. (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenger%C3%A9sz_Henrik). Thanks to the triangular lateen sails attached to the slanted mast and the rudder, it was possible to sail into the wind and was easy to steer.
The caravel had high sides, a deck, and a high stern structure, while in the 13th century the first caravels were still coastal fishing boats. Portuguese sailors reached the coast of West Africa beyond the Gold Coast on lateen sail caravels. (https://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01267/html/06kotet/06r04f25.htm) The lateen sail ship was unusually large for the time It was a fast and agile ship. With the displacement of water, the number of masts increased to four. Its speed reached 11 knots, one international knot is one nautical mile per hour. One nautical mile per hour is 1.852 km/h, so a speed of 11 knots is 20,372 km per hour.
The caravel had high sides, a deck, and a high stern structure, while in the 13th century the first caravels were still coastal fishing boats. Portuguese sailors reached the coast of West Africa beyond the Gold Coast on lateen sail caravels. (https://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01267/html/06kotet/06r04f25.htm) The lateen sail ship was unusually large for the time It was a fast and agile ship. With the displacement of water, the number of masts increased to four. Its speed reached 11 knots, one international knot is one nautical mile per hour. One nautical mile per hour is 1.852 km/h, so a speed of 11 knots is 20,372 km per hour.
15th-century painting: Portuguese ships arriving in the port of Lagos, Portugal, from Africa; one of the caravel's sails was square
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos)
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos)
Christopher Columbus set sail on his expeditions with two caravels and a nao (of his three ships, the Niña and the Pinta were caravels, while the Santa Maria was a carrack (nao): the Italian Columbus, commissioned by Spain, arrived in Lisbon in a Portuguese ship). Later, Vasco da Gama did the same. A few pictures of late caravels, few pictures are available:
Two of Columbus' ships were caravels, the third nao, the Matthev, was a carrack with a foremast sail
A replica of a caravel with a curved bowsprit
A caravel, one of Vasco da Gama's ships in 1502
(https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karavella)
Caravel: Developed in Portugal, its ancestors probably included Arab ships. The first written mention of it dates back to 1255.
Carrack Initially, it was a two-masted, then three-masted, and later a four-masted sailing ship, with a fore-and-aft superstructure, a foremast, and a small square sail on it, which was already used by the Romans. The foremast and mainmast usually had a square sail, and the stern had a lateen sail. It was built with two decks, had a carrying capacity of 200–600 gross tons, and had a huge, bay-shaped, bulging hull that narrowed both at the bottom and at the top. It was built from the 15th century, and was also called a nao. The mainmast, but sometimes the foremast as well, was equipped with a foremast (a smaller sail above the mainsail). The carrack spread throughout Europe.
The carrack was the first large ship of the sailing age. The carrack was one of the longest-used ships in history; the ships of the Indian Armada were also carracks. The back of the hull is round, with a bastion at the front and back, and a foremast at the front. Initially, Portugal, and later Spain, also used this ship to explore and map the world. The foremast and mainmast usually had a square sail, and the rearmost one had a lateen sail. It was built with two decks, had a carrying capacity of 200–600 t, and its huge bay and bulging hull narrowed both at the bottom and top. With a length of 27 meters, its deck widened to 8 meters, and it can hardly be called slender. In the 15th century – when this ship was also referred to as a nao – it may have already carried a few cannons, and in the 16th century the number of cannons reached 40, which were installed on the sides of the ship and between the decks (gun deck) in addition to the superstructure. The carrack initially had two masts, one of which stood amidships, with a large crosssail hoisted, the small mast being attached to the stern, which was fitted with a lateen sail. Later, the carrack was built with three masts, and the mainmast, and sometimes the foremast as well, was fitted with a topsail (above the mainsail), and the “bonnet” (the Roman artemon, the midsail) appeared under the foremast boom. Carracks spread throughout Europe, and in the north they were used mainly by the Dutch, who – probably following the example of the cog – did not use either a topsail or a midsail sail on their ships. The front and rear superstructures of the carracks were protected by a roof structure against the enemy’s lighter projectiles. The firing positions in the mast basket on the mainmast were also protected in a similar way. (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakk). The carrack was an ocean-going ship: stable enough to handle rough seas, large enough to carry provisions for a long voyage, and with high sides. The Spanish and Portuguese explored the world in carracks in the 15th and 16th centuries. They were three- or four-masted sailing ships developed in Portugal in the 15th century for Atlantic navigation. They later became widely used warships. In the mid-16th century, the carrack gave rise to the first galleons and galleys, which remained in use for a long time, and these ships were the first warships armed with cannons.
Ship of Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai, a carrack (Wikipedia)
The two most famous reconstructed exploration ships: Columbus' ship Santa Maria, and Magellan's carrack named Victoria
Caravel 1535
A carrack
Portugal: The Arabs took advantage of the fatal weakening of the Visigoths and invaded the Iberian territory, abolished the Visigothic kingdom, and became the masters of Hispania, who eventually began to be called Moors. Their state was named the Caliphate of Córdoba, after the capital of Iberia. The expulsion of the Moors began around the turn of the millennium. The name Portugal first appears in a document dated 938. The kingdom was proclaimed only in 1143 by Alfonso I, who recaptured it from the Moors in 1147 and made Lisbon his capital. The country reached its final extent under King Alfonso of Bologna, in 1249–51. The current border between Portugal and Spain was drawn in 1267. Portuguese maritime power was founded by King Denis the Peasant when he organized the Portuguese navy. His successor, Alfonso the Brave, actively supported geographical discoveries from the budget - a Portuguese-Genoese squadron again. discovered the Canary Islands after the Phoenicians. Portugal strengthened its relations with England: the two countries signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation in 1308. Columbus also returned to Lisbon from America.
**The origin of sawing was in Egypt:
Sawing with a flint saw around 3000 BC, for coffins
One of the reasons for the construction of keel boats was the advent of large iron saws suitable for sawing oak logs. In boat building, beams were cut to size with saws instead of being split with wedges. Boat building evolved from splitting and working planks to building beams:
Around 1520, Pizarro in Peru. Carpentry work on the beams of a keel boat and a large iron saw (http://jollyroger.5mp.eu/web.php?a=jollyroger&o=GpuztuEbnS)
It is known that the Vikings built their ships from oak and pine wood using axes and adzes, splitting and hewing the wood. The axe used for shipbuilding is also called a adze. The Egyptians made it from flint and then bronze, but mainly from flint, because they did not have tin to make bronze. Copper is a soft metal and is not suitable for making tools. The Egyptians used arsenic bronze, a naturally occurring metal, and often recast their old tools. The planing process:
Stone and metal adzes (Wikipedia)
Throughout history, the head of the adze has been attached in various ways: it was tied to the wooden handle or its split, glued with tar in the north, or placed in a bone socket elsewhere. In the Middle Ages, iron-headed adzes were already in use, some with long handles. Two other tools used were the chisel and the saw. Other shipbuilding operations included splitting, hewing, carving, sawing, drilling, planing, and sanding.Kő- és fém hántoló balta (Wikipedia)